Anatomia

Intraorbital and transorbital injuries are included in the group of head injuries with low frequency. In particular, such injuries rarely result in infectious processes in the brain parenchyma. This case presents a case where a 57-year-old man reported to the neurosurgery department that he had sustained an injury to the conjunctiva of the upper eyelid a month earlier. The patient was injured by a tree branch, which he removed on his own initiative. After persistent eye abduction palsy, an MRI was performed, which showed a compressive mass in the frontal lobe of the brain. A surgical procedure was indicated, which found a piece of twig 3 mm long inside the abscess. Surgical intervention and antibiotic therapy led to the complete recovery of the patient. Full article

Irreversible electroporation (IRE) is a recent and minimally invasive method of partial prostate ablation. However, knowledge of the essential landmarks of prostate anatomy is crucial to achieving safe and effective partial ablation by IRE. High-quality imaging of the prostate is essential before the procedure. The individual morphological pattern of the prostate must be taken into account and detailed mapping with measurement of the lesion is necessary to determine optimal needle placement. The entire tumour volume must be covered while ensuring the safety of critical anatomical structures such as the rectum, urethra, nerve bundles and sphincter muscle. Full article

Tissue engineering is a powerful tool with which to systematically identify the determinants of biological functions. Applied to the design and fabrication of biomimetic brains, tissue engineering serves to disentangle the complex anatomy of neural circuits and pathways by recapitulating structure-function relationships in simplified model systems. The complex neuroanatomy of the cerebral cortex, with its enigmatic columnar and stratified cytoarchitectonic organization, represents a major challenge toward isolating the minimal set of elements that are required to assemble neural tissues with cognitive functions. Whereas considerable efforts have highlighted important genetic and physical correlates of early cortical tissue patterning, no substantive attempt to identify the determinants of how the cortices acquire their relatively conserved, narrow range of numbered layers is evident in the literature. Similarly, it is not yet clear whether cortical columns and laminae are functionally relevant or epiphenomena of embryonic neurodevelopment. Here, we demonstrate that spatial frequencies (m⁻¹) derived from the width-to-height ratios of cerebral cortical columns predict sinusoids with a narrow range of spatial cycles over the average cortical thickness. The resulting periodicities, denoted by theoretical wavenumbers, reflect the number of observed cortical layers among humans and across several other species as revealed by a comparative anatomy approach. We present a hypothesis that cortical columns and their periodic layers are emergent of the intrinsic spatial dimensions of neurons and their nested, self-similar aggregate structures including minicolumns. Finally, we discuss the implications of periodic tissue patterns in the context of neural tissue engineering. Full article

This article focuses on Jean Cruveilhier and particularly on his book Anatomie descriptive, which was a great success during the author’s lifetime. (Notwithstanding this, it is pertinent to point out that the five editions of Anatomie descriptive were surpassed in number by others of the Cruveilhier’s creations, such as Anatomie pathologique and Traité d’Anatomie pathologique.) Unlike other texts of the time and later, Anatomie descriptive presents the anatomy of the human body in a way that can be applied both by students and medical professionals. The objectives of Anatomie descriptive were to make understand how the functions of an organ can be inferred from its structure, and to encourage students and professionals to investigate the anatomical origin of health and disease phenomena. Depending on which sections of the book, the parts of the body were described with morphological, topographic or functional criteria. Many of Cruveilhier’s contributions influenced anatomical eponymy and keep today’s Terminologia Anatomica alive. All of this has made consider Jean Cruveilhier the most outstanding anatomist in France of the first half of the nineteenth century. Due to the scientific rigor Cruveilhier always applied and asked to be applied in the investigation of the anatomic changes linked to pathological processes, he could certainly be considered a predecessor of the objectivity sought by evidence-based medicine. Full article

Clefts of the lip or palate (CLPs) are the most common craniofacial birth defect, with a worldwide incidence of ~1 in 700 live births. The objective of this study is to assess the characteristics of the nasopharyngeal airway in growing vs. non-growing cleft lip/palate subjects and compare them with normal subjects. This retrospective study analyzed eighty-seven scans of three groups from cone beam computed tomography (CBCT). The cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) scans were coded and landmarks were identified using a Dolphin three-dimensional (3D) imaging software server (version 11.7; Patterson Dental Supply, Chatsworth, Calif). All values showed strong measurement reliability (>80), except for the nasopharynx measurement. Regarding gender difference, for the nasopharynx, female subjects (1261.32 ± 713.94) showed the lowest significant values in non-growing unilateral compared to males (6496.8 ± 2987) at p = 0.008. For oropharynx, in the growing bilateral cleft group, male subjects (13,046.79 ± 5521.89) showed a significant difference (p = 0.046) compared to females (8468.98 ± 4279.99). MP-SN, B, A, SNA., SN.B., and ANS-ME showed significant differences for cephalometric parameters (p < 0.05). Despite significant differences in linear and angular measurements, volumetric airway measurements showed no significant differences in the growing groups. For non-growing cleft subjects, the cleft anomaly significantly affected the nasal cavity and left maxillary sinus volumes. Full article

The omasum is the third compartment of the ruminant stomach, which is also considered a water absorption organ and participates in the absorption of volatile fatty acids (VFA), minerals, electrolytes, and fluids. The most important morphological parameter of the omasum is the available absorption area, which depends on the size and number of the omasal laminae, and is variable among different ruminants and based on differences in their daily diets. Optimal omasum development in the transition period to ruminant life can enhance animal performance, so identifying the best diet for this period is crucial for producers. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of two diets based on 8 L of milk replacer with the inclusion of concentrate or forage on the development of the omasum in twenty newborn male Holstein calves divided into two groups. The first group was fed alfalfa hay, and the second was administered a balanced commercial starter feed, both groups ad libitum. After standard dissection of the omasum of both calf groups, the omasal laminae were classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary, and their surface area was calculated. Regarding the number of first-, second-, and third-order laminae, a significant difference was only observed in the number of third-order laminae in favor of the forage-fed group (p = 0.04). The laminar surface area indicated that the area of the primary, secondary, and tertiary sheets, and the total laminar area, were greater in the forage group (p < 0.05). The length of the omasal papillae recorded with the scanning electron microscope showed that the papillae near the ostium reticulo-omasicum tended to be significantly longer in the forage-fed group (p = 0.05). In conclusion, this study demonstrates that significant anatomical differences can be observed between two groups of animals of the same species and rearing stage that were fed with two different diets within a period of less than two months. This highlights the remarkable plasticity and adaptability of the ruminant stomach. Full article

The pioneer Swiss naturalist René-Édouard Claparède (1832–1871), professor at the University of Geneva, left important contributions to diverse areas of natural science, biology, and comparative anatomy, including the structure of infusoria, annelids, and earthworms, the evolution of arthropods, and the embryology of spiders. He also published observations on marine invertebrates. This essay presents a brief overview of his academic life and work and makes the distinction from his nephew with the same name, the neurologist and educational psychologist Édouard Claparède (1873–1840). Full article

Immersive virtual reality with the use of 3D holography is a new method that is being currently introduced for teaching anatomy, yet the actual educational benefits associated with its use remain unclear. Here, we present our preliminary observations and conclusions after the pilot phase of the study on a 3D holographic human heart. The study was conducted on a group of 96 students of medical faculty. Students were randomly divided into two groups: 57 students who were taught anatomy using traditional methods (plastinated human hearts, anatomical models, and atlases) and 39 students who were taught using 3D holographic hearts. Assessment of knowledge retention of the heart anatomy comprised 3 tests, which were performed 1 week and 3 and 6 months after the classes on heart anatomy. We have found that although anatomical classes with the use of immersive virtual reality were attractive for students; still, unsupervised teaching with the use of 3D holograms was not superior to traditional medical education. Differences between the groups in terms of anatomical knowledge retention were not statistically significant. Results of this pilot study suggest that in order to achieve better knowledge retention and understanding of the anatomy of the heart, classes should be precisely planned and strictly supervised by academic teachers. Moreover, students should get familiar with the use of virtual reality goggles before the classes. Full article

The distinctive long neck of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) entails functional difficulties brought about by the extended distance between the heart and the head. Blood must be circulated over 2 m from the heart to the brain against gravitational force. The natural movement of the head to ground level would result in a large volume of blood moving toward the brain with the force of gravity. Large blood volumes also rush to the brain during bulls’ fighting (necking), rendering the giraffe susceptible to possible brain damage. The natural movement of the head from ground level to fully erect would result in blood moving away from the brain with gravitational force. The lack of blood perfusing the brain can cause fainting. The giraffe, however, suffers neither brain damage nor fainting. What adaptations do giraffes have to counteract these challenges? The aim of this study was to investigate the functionality of the rostral epidural rete mirabile situated just beneath the brain and its possible contribution to successful circulation in long-necked giraffes. The unique rostral epidural rete mirabile structure significantly contributes to counteract physiological challenges. Turns and bends characterize this structural arterial meshwork and subsequently an increased artery length through which blood flow must proceed before entrance into the brain, exerting resistance to blood racing to the brain when the head is lowered to the ground. The brain is supplied mainly by the maxillary artery through the carotid rete, with a rudimentary basilar artery not contributing to the brain’s blood supply. The resistance to blood flow due to the structure and position of the rostral epidural rete mirabile when the head is in the upright position is counteracted by the unique carotid-vertebral anastomosis allowing immediate cerebral blood supply. The rostral epidural rete mirabile structure in giraffes is an essential feature balancing physiological difficulties arising due to the extensive heart-to-head distance and might fulfill the same function in other long-necked artiodactyls. Full article

The objective of this paper was to describe the anatomy of the stifle joint (Articulatio genus) of the pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus, Linnaeus, 1758) by dissection and imaging studies. Twenty-six pelvic limbs were used for gross dissection, and four stifle regions from two animals were used for radiography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The stifle joint of the pampas deer comprised the femoropatellar joint (joint between the distal part of the femur and the patella), and the femorotibial joint joined the femoral condyles to the proximal extremity of the tibia. The general anatomy of the stifle joint, including the overall morphology of the joint with its bones, complementary parts, means of attachment, and anatomical relationships, was like that of other ruminant species of similar size. Imaging techniques such as MRI allow adequate visualization of most components of the stifle joint. Full article

While relatively uncommon, a duplication of the inferior vena cava is moderately well-discussed in the literature. This anatomical variation was noted in a 69-year-old white female donor. This variation is typically asymptomatic; however, it can be associated with complications, such as confusion with a mediastinal mass, increased risk for thromboembolism, and hemorrhage during surgery. It is also associated with a handful of comorbidities, including, but not limited to, congenital renal anomalies such as horseshoe kidney or fused crossed kidney. Research supports that the variation of a duplicated IVC (DIVC) can be due to a failure of the left supracardinal vein to regress during embryonic development. Full article

Forearm extensor muscle variations can be diverse and, in some instances, rare. During a routine anatomical dissection of human cadaveric donors during the 2021 first-year medical gross anatomy course and 2021 graduate nursing advanced anatomy course at the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, bilateral agenesis of the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle was noted in one 70-year-old white male donor. This variation is described as extremely rare in the literature. The presence of an extensor indicis et digiti medii tendon, a variant of the extensor indicis tendon, appeared to be evident in post-dissection photographs on the left hand. The presence of a duplicated extensor indicis proprious tendon appears to be evident on the right hand. However, further inspection of this region was impeded as the body was sent for cremation prior to the variation being identified. The presence of various juncturae tendinum was also noted bilaterally. Reported prevalence of extensor indicis muscle variants ranges from 0.75% to 13%, depending on the specific type or grouping of variations observed. Knowledge of variations in the extensor compartment of the forearm and wrist is crucial for orthopedic surgeons and specialists. Alteration of surgical approaches may be necessary if such a variation is present. Such variations can be options for grafts, resulting in minimal functional change to the grafted area due to the continued existence of other muscles performing similar functions. Knowledge of such variations, and alternative, synonymous names for them, is also important for anatomy instructors, who may need to assist students in identifying these rare variations during anatomical dissection. Full article

Background: Fundamental knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the inner ear is necessary to understand otologic diseases and therapeutic strategies. Aim: Evaluate the inter- and intraindividual variability of the modiolar position in relation to vestibular landmarks and cranial morphology on computed tomography scans (CT scan). Methods: Thirty CT scans of normal temporal bones (25 adults, 5 children) were analyzed after multiplanar reconstruction (MPR). The measurements for each ear included the angle of each semicircular canal (SCC) made by a line passing through the chosen plane and a line passing between the apex and the ampulla of the SCC studied and the angle of the modiolus in the transverse and sagittal planes. Results: Intraindividual asymmetries with a moderate to good right/left correlation were observed for the lateral SCC in the transverse plane, posterior SCC in the frontal plane, and the superior SCC in the sagittal plane and for the modiolus in the transverse plane. Conclusions: An anatomical variability in the cochlea, independent of other surrounding anatomical elements, seems to exist, but the SCCs seem to remain symmetrical. Significance: The orientation of the modiolus is an important knowledge to acquire during presurgical planning prior to transmodiolar auditory nerve implantation. Full article

Conventional anatomical models and cadaveric specimens can be time-consuming and resource intensive for any anatomical institute. In recent years, there has been a push for more flexible and varied approaches to teaching, including problem-based and computer-aided learning, which includes web-based anatomical models or the use of three-dimensional visualization technology. With advances in hardware, autostereoscopic (AS) 3D screens have become more affordable, portable, and accessible to individuals, not just institutes. At King’s College London (KCL), we developed the Virtual Anatomy and Histology (VAH) platform—an online resource which focuses on perspective volumetric 3D viewing of medical scan data and 3D models to facilitate the online teaching and learning of anatomy. This paper presents the features of VAH and details a study that was conducted in 2022, to evaluate the VAH 3D AS viewer configured with The Looking Glass Portrait (TLG) (Looking Glass, New York, NY, USA) 8-inch AS display. We tested the hypothesis that using an AS display can improve spatial understanding of cardiovascular anatomy. A cardiovascular 3D textured model was used from our gallery to carry out a spatial test. Twenty current healthcare students at King’s participated in the study and completed a structured questionnaire. Results showed that 47.6% and 52.4% of participants agreed and strongly agreed, respectively, that identifying anatomical structures was easier in 3D compared to 2D. Qualitative feedback was positive as most students found King’s VAH and TLG display “useful for people who need help with spatial understanding” and that “it was a good tool to test your anatomical knowledge”. In conclusion, based on the quantitative results and feedback, we are optimistic that King’s VAH and portable AS displays can be beneficial in anatomy education. With the increasing availability of such systems and competitive pricing, this technology is likely to have a significant impact in education in coming years. Full article

A morphological study of the skeletal specimen of Canis lupus L. from an archeological dig of Agnano (Pisa) (Fauna Laboratory, Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Pisa, Italy) that is chronologically placed in the Wurm period (last glaciation) was done to perform an anatomical comparison between this wild ancestor and osteological specimens of Canis familiaris L. present in the Veterinary Anatomy Museum (University of Pisa). Marked morphological differences in the splanchnocranium (nasal bone, zygomatic arch and orbital angle), neurocranium (sagittal crest) and temporomandibular joint (due to different developments of the masticatory muscles) are highlighted on the wolf specimen compared to those in the domestic dog specimens present in Museum. The appendicular skeletal bones of the wolf show anatomical features similar to those of dog bone specimens, confirming their belonging to the same family (Canidae). This result confirms that domestication has almost exclusively affected the anatomical features of the skull that have changed due to the difference in dietary approach between wolves and dogs. Full article

The Locomotor System Anatomy (LSA) course, placed in the first semester of the first year of the new Master’s degree in Medicine and Surgery High Technology (MSHT) at the Sapienza University of Rome, was integrated with surgical and bioengineering content. This study investigated the educational value and the students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of these two types of integration, comparing surgical integration (SI) with engineering integration (EI). Anatomy knowledge and students’ opinions attending the LSA course in MSHT degree (n = 30) were compared with those of students (n = 32) attending another medical and surgery course not comprising EI. Data show that students in the MSHT course like in-depth SI much more than in-depth EI. However, those who like in-depth SI also like in-depth EI. Significant differences were in anatomy knowledge between the two groups in the three sections of the test. There was no significant correlation between the three test scores and the levels of liking, while there was a significant correlation between students liking SI and those liking EI. A statistically significant correlation was also found in students who correctly responded to questions on the head and trunk, with students responding correctly to questions on the upper limbs. This study will be important in optimizing the deepening of SI and EI in the LSA course. Full article

The cerebellum is an encephalic region classically known for its central role in the control of movement, although recent research has revealed its involvement in other cognitive and affective tasks. Several different pathologies are known to affect this structure, causing a wide range of behavioral and gait impairments. Intriguingly, although the neurodegenerative factors affect all Purkinje cells of the cerebellum uniformly, certain neurodegeneration patterns can be distinguished, in which some Purkinje cells persist longer than other cell types. Specifically, there is a cerebellar region, lobe X, which is more resistant to different types of neurodegeneration, regardless of the injury. Degeneration patterns of the cerebellum have been described in several models, but this review goes further, as it aims at describing a phenomenon not so described: the resistance of the lobe X to neurodegeneration. For this purpose, the main models of cerebellar degeneration will be reviewed and a common origin for the lobe X resistance will be sought. Full article

Human brain atlases are tools to gather, present, use, and discover knowledge about the human brain. The developments in brain atlases parallel the advances in neuroanatomy. The brain atlas evolution has been from hand-drawn cortical maps to print atlases to digital platforms which, thanks to tremendous advancements in acquisition techniques and computing, has enabled progress in neuroanatomy from gross (macro) to meso-, micro-, and nano-neuroanatomy. Advances in neuroanatomy have been feasible because of introducing new modalities, from the initial cadaveric dissections, morphology, light microscopy imaging and neuroelectrophysiology to non-invasive in vivo imaging, connectivity, electron microscopy imaging, genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, and epigenomics. Presently, large and long-term brain projects along with big data drive the development in micro- and nano-neuroanatomy. The goal of this work is to address the relationship between neuroanatomy and human brain atlases and, particularly, the impact of these atlases on the understanding, presentation, and advancement of neuroanatomy. To better illustrate this relationship, a brief outline on the evolution of the human brain atlas concept, creation of brain atlases, atlas-based applications, and future brain-related developments is also presented. In conclusion, human brain atlases are excellent means to represent, present, disseminate, and support neuroanatomy. Full article