Journal Description

Gases

Gases is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on the field of applied science and engineering advances in natural gas, greenhouse gas control, and gas sensors, published quarterly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
Rapid Publication: first decisions in 16 days; acceptance to publication in 5.8 days (median values for MDPI journals in the first half of 2023).
Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review, and reviewer names published annually in the journal.
Gases is a companion journal of Energies.

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2673-5628

Latest Articles

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study and Thermodynamic Analysis of Carbon Dioxide Adsorption onto Activated Carbons Prepared from Biowaste Raw Materials

Olga V. Solovtsova

Ilya E. Men’shchikov

Andrey V. Shkolin

Alexander E. Grinchenko

Elena V. Khozina

and

Anatoly A. Fomkin

Gases 2023, 3(3), 112-135; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases3030008 - 14 Aug 2023

Abstract

Nutshells are regarded as cost-effective and abundant raw materials for producing activated carbons (ACs) for CO₂ capture, storage, and utilization. The effects of carbonization temperature and thermochemical KOH activation conditions on the porous structure as a BET surface, micropore volume, micropore width, and pore size distribution of ACs prepared from walnut (WNS) and hazelnut (HNS) shells were investigated. As a result, one-step carbonization at 900/800 °C and thermochemical KOH activation with a char/KOH mass ratio of 1:2/1:3 were found to be optimal for preparing ACs from WNS/HNS: WNS-AC-3 and HNS-AC-2, respectively. The textural properties of the WNS/HNS chars and ACs were characterized by low-temperature nitrogen vapor adsorption, XRD, and SEM methods. Dubinin’s theory of volume filling of micropores was used to evaluate the microporosity parameters and to calculate the CO₂ adsorption equilibrium over the sub- and supercritical temperatures from 216.4 to 393 K at a pressure up to 10 MPa. The CO₂ capture capacities of WNS- and HNS-derived adsorbents reached 5.9/4.1 and 5.4/3.9 mmol/g at 273/293 K under 0.1 MPa pressure, respectively. A discrepancy between the total and delivery volumetric adsorption capacities of the adsorbents was attributed to the strong binding of CO₂ molecules with the adsorption sites, which were mainly narrow micropores with a high adsorption potential. The high initial differential heats of CO₂ adsorption onto ACs of ~32 kJ/mol confirmed this proposal. The behaviors of thermodynamic functions (enthalpy and entropy) of the adsorption systems were attributed to changes in the state of adsorbed CO₂ molecules determined by a balance between attractive and repulsive CO₂–CO₂ and CO₂–AC interactions during the adsorption process. Thus, the chosen route for preparing ACs from the nutshells made it possible to prepare efficient carbon adsorbents with a relatively high CO₂ adsorption performance due to a substantial volume of micropores with a size in the range of 0.6–0.7 nm. Full article

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Open AccessCommunication

A New Ignition Source for the Determination of Safety Characteristics of Gases

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Gases 2023, 3(3), 106-111; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases3030007 - 03 Jul 2023

Abstract

Safety characteristics are used to keep processes, including flammable gases, vapors, and combustible dusts, safe. In the standards for the determination of safety characteristics of gases and vapors, the induction spark is commonly used. However, classic transformers are hard to obtain, and replacement with new electronic transformers is not explicitly allowed in the standards. This article presents the investigation of five gases that are normally used to calibrate devices for the determination of safety characteristics, the maximum experimental safe gap (MESG), with an electronic transformer, and the values are compared to the ones that are obtained with the standard transformer. Additionally, calorimetric measurements on the net energy of both ignition sources were performed as well as open-circuit voltage measurements. It is concluded that the classic type of transformer can be replaced by the new type obtaining the same results for the MESG and introducing the same amount of energy into the system. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen Purification through a Membrane–Cryogenic Integrated Process: A 3 E’s (Energy, Exergy, and Economic) Assessment

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Gases 2023, 3(3), 92-105; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases3030006 - 27 Jun 2023

Abstract

Hydrogen (H₂) is known for its clean energy characteristics. Its separation and purification to produce high-purity H₂ is becoming essential to promoting a H₂ economy. There are several technologies, such as pressure swing adsorption, membrane, and cryogenic, which can be adopted to produce high-purity H₂; however, each standalone technology has its own pros and cons. Unlike standalone technology, the integration of technologies has shown significant potential for achieving high purity with a high recovery. In this study, a membrane–cryogenic process was integrated to separate H₂ via the desublimation of carbon dioxide. The proposed process was designed, simulated, and optimized in Aspen Hysys. The results showed that the H₂ was separated with a 99.99% purity. The energy analysis revealed a net-specific energy consumption of 2.37 kWh/kg. The exergy analysis showed that the membranes and multi-stream heat exchangers were major contributors to the exergy destruction. Furthermore, the calculated total capital investment of the proposed process was 816.2 m$. This proposed process could be beneficial for the development of a H₂ economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Processes for Decarbonisation)

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Open AccessArticle

Computational Fluid Dynamics Analysis of a Hollow Fiber Membrane Module for Binary Gas Mixture

Salman Qadir

Muhammad Ahsan

and

Arshad Hussain

Gases 2023, 3(2), 77-91; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases3020005 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 1

Abstract

The membrane gas separation process has gained significant attention using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) technique. This study considered the CFD method to find gas concentration profiles in a hollow fiber membrane (HFM) module to separate the binary gas mixture. The membrane was considered with a fiber thickness where each component’s mass fluxes could be obtained based on the local partial pressures, solubility, diffusion, and the membrane’s selectivity. COMSOL Multiphysics was used to solve the numerical solution at corresponding operating conditions and results were compared to experimental data. The two different mixtures, CO₂/CH₄ and N₂/O₂, were investigated to obtain concentration gradient and mass flux profiles of CO₂ and O₂ species in an axial direction. This study allows assessing the feed pressure’s impact on the HFM system’s overall performance. These results demonstrate that the increment in feed pressures decreased the membrane system’s separation performance. The impact of hollow fiber length indicates that increasing the active fiber length has a higher effective mass transfer region but dilutes the permeate-side purities of O₂ (46% to 28%) and CO₂ (93% to 73%). The results show that increasing inlet pressure and a higher concentration gradient resulted in higher flux through the membrane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Processes for Decarbonisation)

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Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Reverberations Caused by Predominant Air Pollutants on Urban Vegetation: A Multi-Site Study in Varanasi Located in Indo-Gangetic Plains

Harshita Singh

Pallavi Singh

Shashi Bhushan Agrawal

and

Madhoolika Agrawal

Gases 2023, 3(2), 57-76; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases3020004 - 05 Apr 2023

Cited by 2

Abstract

Plant responses to air pollution have been extensively studied in urban environments. Nevertheless, detailed and holistic studies assessing their retaliation to air contaminants are still limited. The present study evaluates the effect of criteria pollutants (SO₂, NO₂, PM₁₀ and O₃) on the overall biochemistry and resource allocation strategy of plants in order to categorize the dominant roadside species (Mangifera indica, Psidium guajava, Ficus religiosa, Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Cascabela thevetia and Bougainvillea spectabilis) of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), with different morphologies and habits, into species that are tolerant and sensitive to the prevailing air pollutants. This study was performed at three different land-use sites (industrial, commercial and reference) in Varanasi for two seasons (summer and winter). It was inferred that NO₂ and PM₁₀ consistently violated the air quality standards at all the sites. The fifteen assessed parameters reflected significant variations depending upon the site, season and plant species whereupon the enzymatic antioxidants (superoxide dismutase and catalase) and resource utilization parameters (leaf area and leaf dry matter content) were remarkably affected. Based on the studied parameters, it was entrenched that deciduous tree species with compound leaves (D. sissoo > A. indica) were identified as the less sensitive, followed by a shrub (C. thevetia > B. spectabilis), while evergreen species with simple leaves were the most sensitive. It was also substantiated that the morphology of the foliage contributed more toward the differential response of the plants to air pollutants than its habit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Quality: Monitoring and Assessment)

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Open AccessArticle

Greenhouse Gas Emissions of the Poultry Sector in Greece and Mitigation Potential Strategies

Konstantina Akamati

George P. Laliotis

and

Iosif Bizelis

Gases 2023, 3(1), 47-56; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases3010003 - 14 Mar 2023

Abstract

The poultry sector is considered to be one of the most industrialized sectors of livestock production. Although the livestock sector contributes the 14.5% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, less attention has been paid in the respective emissions of the poultry sector compared to other farmed animals such as ruminants. The aim of the study was to estimate the carbon footprint of the poultry sector (layers, broilers, and backyards) in the Greek territory during the last 60 years as a means of exploring further mitigation strategies. Tier 2 methodology was used to estimate GHG emissions. Different mitigation scenarios related to changes in herd population, feeds, and manure management were examined. GHG emissions showed an increased trend over time. The different scenarios explored showed moderate to high mitigating potential depending on the parameters that were changed. Changes in manure management or diet revealed to have a higher potential to eliminate GHG emissions. Changes in population numbers showed a low mitigating potential. However, if mortality could be improved within industrialized farming systems, then it could be an indirect increase in product quantities with a slight increase in emissions. Therefore, depending on national priorities, the sector could improve its environmental impact by targeting aspects related to husbandry/management practices. Full article

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Open AccessReview

The Hydrogen Color Spectrum: Techno-Economic Analysis of the Available Technologies for Hydrogen Production

Jose M. Marín Arcos

and

Diogo M. F. Santos

Gases 2023, 3(1), 25-46; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases3010002 - 03 Feb 2023

Cited by 5

Abstract

Hydrogen has become the most promising energy carrier for the future. The spotlight is now on green hydrogen, produced with water electrolysis powered exclusively by renewable energy sources. However, several other technologies and sources are available or under development to satisfy the current and future hydrogen demand. In fact, hydrogen production involves different resources and energy loads, depending on the production method used. Therefore, the industry has tried to set a classification code for this energy carrier. This is done by using colors that reflect the hydrogen production method, the resources consumed to produce the required energy, and the number of emissions generated during the process. Depending on the reviewed literature, some colors have slightly different definitions, thus making the classifications imprecise. Therefore, this techno-economic analysis clarifies the meaning of each hydrogen color by systematically reviewing their production methods, consumed energy sources, and generated emissions. Then, an economic assessment compares the costs of the various hydrogen colors and examines the most feasible ones and their potential evolution. The scientific community and industry’s clear understanding of the advantages and drawbacks of each element of the hydrogen color spectrum is an essential step toward reaching a sustainable hydrogen economy. Full article

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Graphical abstract

Open AccessReview

A Review on Qualitative Assessment of Natural Gas Utilisation Options for Eliminating Routine Nigerian Gas Flaring

Robin Abu

Kumar Patchigolla

and

Nigel Simms

Gases 2023, 3(1), 1-24; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases3010001 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 4

Abstract

Natural gas flaring, with its harmful environmental, health, and economic effects, is common in the Nigerian oil and gas industry because of a lower tax regime for flared gases. Based on the adverse effects of flared gas, the Nigerian government has renewed and improved its efforts to reduce or eliminate gas flaring through the application of natural gas utilisation techniques. However, because the conventional approach to flare gas utilisation is heavily reliant on achieving scale, fuel, and end-product prices, not all technologies are technically and economically viable for typically capturing large and small quantities of associated gas from various flare sites or gas fields (located offshore or onshore). For these reasons, this paper reviews and compares various flare gas utilisation options to guide their proper selection for appropriate implementation in the eradication of routine gas flaring in Nigeria and to promote the Zero Routine Flaring initiative, which aims to reduce flaring levels dramatically by 2030. A qualitative assessment is used in this study to contrast the various flare gas utilisation options against key decision drivers. In this analysis, three natural gas utilisation processes—liquefied natural gas (LNG), gas to wire (GTW), and gas to methanol (GTM)—are recommended as options for Nigeria because of their economic significance, technological viability (both onshore and offshore), and environmental benefits. All these gas utilisation options have the potential to significantly reduce and prevent routine gas flaring in Nigeria and can be used separately or in combination to create synergies that could lower project costs and product market risk. This article clearly identifies the environmental benefits and the technical and economic viability of infrastructure investments to recover and repurpose flare gasses along with recommendation steps to select and optimise economies of scale for an associated natural gas utilisation option. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Explosive Processes in Permafrost as a Result of the Development of Local Gas-Saturated Fluid-Dynamic Geosystems

Alexander Khimenkov

and

Julia Stanilovskaya

Gases 2022, 2(4), 146-165; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases2040009 - 07 Dec 2022

Abstract

The relevance of studying explosive processes in permafrost lies in the prospect of gas production from small gas-saturated zones in the subsurface; the influx of significant amounts of greenhouse gases from frozen soils creates a threat to infrastructure. The purpose of this article is to reveal the general patterns of frozen soils’ transformation in local zones of natural explosions. The greatest volume of information about the processes preceding the formation of gas-emission craters can be obtained by studying the deformations of the cryogenic structure of soil. The typification of the elements of the cryogenic structures of frozen soils that form the walls of various gas-emission craters was carried out. Structural and morphological analyses were used as a methodological basis for studying gas-emission craters. This method involves a set of operations that establishes links between the cryogenic structure of the crater walls and the morphologies of their surfaces. In this study, it is concluded that gas-emission craters are the result of the self-development of local gas-dynamic geosystems that are in a non-equilibrium thermodynamic state with respect to the enclosing permafrost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Gas Emissions)

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Open AccessArticle

Statistical Review of the Italian Gas Transmission System Operator under Conditions of the COVID-19 Pandemic and the Supply Restriction from the Russian Federation

Tomasz Chrulski

Gases 2022, 2(4), 134-145; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases2040008 - 09 Oct 2022

Abstract

The coronavirus pandemic caused a crisis in industrial economies, enforcing public concern. The first case of the infection in Europe occurred in Italy. Nowadays, in the field of European gas infrastructure, Italy stands as one of the leading countries transporting gaseous fuel to end users. This article provides an overview of the distribution of natural gas flows in the Italian gas infrastructure in the face of the coronavirus outspread in the country and GAZPROM’s natural gas supply restrictions for European countries. This article presents, using the ARIMA method, a forecast of natural gas consumption of Italian consumers measured up to 2024. Full article

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Open AccessReview

Carbon Capture from CO₂-Rich Natural Gas via Gas-Liquid Membrane Contactors with Aqueous-Amine Solvents: A Review

Guilherme Pereira da Cunha

José Luiz de Medeiros

and

Ofélia de Queiroz F. Araújo

Gases 2022, 2(3), 98-133; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases2030007 - 01 Sep 2022

Cited by 1

Abstract

Gas–liquid membrane contactor is a promising process intensification technology for offshore natural gas conditioning in which weight and footprint constraints impose severe limitations. Thanks to its potential for substituting conventional packed/trayed columns for acid-gas absorption and acid-gas solvent regeneration, gas-liquid membrane contactors have been investigated experimentally and theoretically in the past two decades, wherein aqueous-amine solvents and their blends are the most employed solvents for carbon dioxide removal from natural gas in gas-liquid membrane contactors. These efforts are extensively and critically reviewed in the present work. Experimentally, there are a remarkable lack of literature data in the context of gas–liquid membrane contactors regarding the following topics: water mass transfer; outlet stream temperatures; head-loss; and light hydrocarbons (e.g., ethane, propane, and heavier) mass transfer. Theoretically, there is a lack of complete models to predict gas-liquid membrane contactor operation, considering multicomponent mass balances, energy balances, and momentum balances, with an adequate thermodynamic framework for correct reactive vapor–liquid equilibrium calculation and thermodynamic and transport property prediction. Among the few works covering modeling of gas-liquid membrane contactors and implementation in professional process simulators, none of them implemented all the above aspects in a completely successful way. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Gas)

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Graphical abstract

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Coal Orthotropic and Hydraulic Fracture on Pressure Distribution in Coalbed Methane Reservoirs

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Gases 2022, 2(3), 85-97; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases2030006 - 18 Aug 2022

Abstract

Coalbed methane (CBM) shows tremendous in situ reserves, attracting a great deal of research interests around the world. The efficient development of CBM is closely related to the dynamic pressure distribution characteristics in the coal seam. As the dominant component of the geological reserve for CBM, the adsorption-state gas will not be exploited until the local coal pressure becomes less than the critical desorption pressure. Therefore, although the CBM reserve is fairly large, the production performance is generally limited, with a poor understanding of the dynamic pressure field during the CBM production. In this work, in order to address this issue properly, the coal’s inherent properties, the coal’s orthotropic features, as well as artificial hydraulic fracturing are considered, all of which affect pressure propagation in the coal seam. Notably, to the current knowledge, the impact of coal’s orthotropic features has received little attention, while the coal’s orthotropic features are formed during a fairly long geological evolution, changing the dynamic pressure field a lot. Numerical simulation is performed to shed light on the pressure propagation behavior. The results show that (a) coal’s orthotropic features mitigate the depressurization process of CBM development; (b) the increasing length of a hydraulic fracture is helpful for efficient decline in the average formation pressure; and (c) there exists an optimal layout mode for multi-well locations to minimize the average pressure. This article provides an in-depth analysis upon pressure distribution in CBM reservoirs under impacts of coal orthotropic feature and hydraulic fractures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Gas)

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Open AccessBrief Report

Influence of an Extreme Saharan Dust Event on the Air Quality of the West Region of Portugal

João Gomes

Helder Esteves

and

Luis Rente

Gases 2022, 2(3), 74-84; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases2030005 - 07 Jul 2022

Cited by 4

Abstract

This paper describes how an extreme Saharan dust event that took place in March 2022 affected the Iberian Peninsula and was noticed not only by the outdoor air quality monitoring stations measuring PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ but also by indoor air monitoring systems in Fatima, central Portugal. The observed particulate matter concentrations clearly show the influence that such an event has on the indoor air quality inside buildings and that the magnitude of that influence is also dependent on the specific characteristics of the buildings, mainly the ventilation conditions, as should be expected. Therefore, this study alerts us to the necessity of integrating indoor and outdoor air quality monitoring systems to achieve automated air conditioning systems capable of efficiently controlling both temperature and air cleanliness. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Efficiency of U.S. Oil and Gas Companies toward Energy Policies

Sami Jarboui

Achraf Ghorbel

and

Ahmed Jeribi

Gases 2022, 2(2), 61-73; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases2020004 - 09 Jun 2022

Cited by 2

Abstract

The petroleum industry faces crucial environmental problems that exacerbate business instability, such as climate change and greenhouse gas emission regulations. Generally, governments focus on pricing, environmental protection, and supply security when developing energy policy. This article evaluates the technical efficiency of 53 oil and gas companies in the United States during the period 1998–2018 using the stochastic frontier analysis methods and investigates the degree to which energy policies influence the efficiency levels in these companies. Our empirical results show that the average technical efficiency of the 53 U.S. oil and gas companies is 0.75 and confirm that prices, production, consumption, and reserves of the U.S. petroleum and gas have a significant influence on technical efficiency levels. Specifically, our findings show that renewable energy and nuclear power contribute to explaining the distortion between the optimal and observed output of the U.S. oil and gas companies. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Risk Management Assessment in Oil and Gas Construction Projects Using Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM)

Mukhtar A. Kassem

Gases 2022, 2(2), 33-60; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases2020003 - 09 May 2022

Cited by 6

Abstract

Oil and gas construction projects are of great importance to support and facilitate the process of operation and production. However, these projects usually face chronic risks that lead to time overrun, cost overrun, and poor quality, affecting the projects’ success. Hence, this study focused on identifying, classifying, and modeling the risk factors that have negative effects on the success of construction projects in Yemen. The data were collected through a structured questionnaire. Statistical analysis, relative important index method, and probability impact matrix analysis were carried out to classify and rank the risk factors. The partial least squares path modeling or partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-PM, PLS-SEM) is a method for structural equation modeling that allows an estimation of complex cause–effect relationships in path models with latent variables. PLS-SEM was employed to analyze data collected from a questionnaire survey of 314 participants comprising the clients, contractors, and consultants working in oil and gas construction projects. The results showed that the goodness of fit index of the model is 0.638. The developed model was deemed to fit because the analysis result of the coefficient of determination test (R²) of the model was 0.720, which indicates the significant explanation of the developed model for the relationship between the causes of risks and their effects on the success of projects. The most impacted internal risk categories include project management, feasibility study design, and resource material availability. The main external risk elements include political, economic, and security considerations. The created risk factor model explained the influence of risk factors on the success of construction projects effectively, according to statistical and expert validation tests. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Electrostatic Shock Structures in a Magnetized Plasma Having Non-Thermal Particles

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Gases 2022, 2(2), 22-32; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases2020002 - 25 Mar 2022

Abstract

A rigorous theoretical investigation has been made on the nonlinear propagation of dust-ion-acoustic shock waves in a multi-component magnetized pair-ion plasma (PIP) having inertial warm positive and negative ions, inertialess non-thermal electrons and positrons, and static negatively charged massive dust grains. The Burgers’ equation is derived by employing the reductive perturbation method. The plasma model supports both positive and negative shock structures in the presence of static negatively charged massive dust grains. It is found that the steepness of both positive and negative shock profiles declines with the increase of ion kinematic viscosity without affecting the height, and the increment of negative (positive) ion mass in the PIP system declines (enhances) the amplitude of the shock profile. It is also observed that the increase in oblique angle raises the height of the positive shock profile, and the height of the positive shock wave increases with the number density of positron. The applications of the findings from the present investigation are briefly discussed. Full article

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Open AccessReview

Adsorption Factors in Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery: A Review

Theodora Noely Tambaria

Yuichi Sugai

and

Ronald Nguele

Gases 2022, 2(1), 1-21; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases2010001 - 14 Jan 2022

Cited by 4

Abstract

Enhanced coal bed methane recovery using gas injection can provide increased methane extraction depending on the characteristics of the coal and the gas that is used. Accurate prediction of the extent of gas adsorption by coal are therefore important. Both experimental methods and modeling have been used to assess gas adsorption and its effects, including volumetric and gravimetric techniques, as well as the Ono–Kondo model and other numerical simulations. Thermodynamic parameters may be used to model adsorption on coal surfaces while adsorption isotherms can be used to predict adsorption on coal pores. In addition, density functional theory and grand canonical Monte Carlo methods may be employed. Complementary analytical techniques include Fourier transform infrared, Raman spectroscopy, XR diffraction, and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. This review summarizes the cutting-edge research concerning the adsorption of CO₂, N_2, or mixture gas onto coal surfaces and into coal pores based on both experimental studies and simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Science and Technology Advances on Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS))

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Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Heat Decarbonization Strategies and Their Impact on the Irish Gas Network

Aruna Chandrasekar

and

Eoin Syron

Gases 2021, 1(4), 180-198; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases1040014 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 1

Abstract

Decarbonization of the heating sector is essential to meet the ambitious goals of the Paris Climate Agreement for 2050. However, poorly insulated buildings and industrial processes with high and intermittent heating demand will still require traditional boilers that burn fuel to avoid excessive burden on electrical networks. Therefore, it is important to assess the impact of residential, commercial, and industrial heat decarbonization strategies on the distribution and transmission gas networks. Using building energy models in EnergyPlus, the progressive decarbonization of gas-fueled heating was investigated by increasing insulation in buildings and increasing the efficiency of gas boilers. Industrial heat decarbonization was evaluated through a progressive move to lower-carbon fuel sources using MATLAB. The results indicated a maximum decrease of 19.9% in natural gas utilization due to the buildings’ thermal retrofits. This, coupled with a move toward the electrification of heat, will reduce volumes of gas being transported through the distribution gas network. However, the decarbonization of the industrial heat demand with hydrogen could result in up to a 380% increase in volumetric flow rate through the transmission network. A comparison between the decarbonization of domestic heating through gas and electrical heating is also carried out. The results indicated that gas networks can continue to play an essential role in the decarbonized energy systems of the future. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

An Investigation into the Volumetric Flow Rate Requirement of Hydrogen Transportation in Existing Natural Gas Pipelines and Its Safety Implications

Abubakar Jibrin Abbas

Hossein Hassani

Martin Burby

and

Idoko Job John

Gases 2021, 1(4), 156-179; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases1040013 - 21 Oct 2021

Cited by 10

Abstract

As an alternative to the construction of new infrastructure, repurposing existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transportation has been identified as a low-cost strategy for substituting natural gas with hydrogen in the wake of the energy transition. In line with that, a 342 km, 36″ natural gas pipeline was used in this study to simulate some technical implications of delivering the same amount of energy with different blends of natural gas and hydrogen, and with 100% hydrogen. Preliminary findings from the study confirmed that a three-fold increase in volumetric flow rate would be required of hydrogen to deliver an equivalent amount of energy as natural gas. The effects of flowing hydrogen at this rate in an existing natural gas pipeline on two flow parameters (the compressibility factor and the velocity gradient) which are crucial to the safety of the pipeline were investigated. The compressibility factor behaviour revealed the presence of a wide range of values as the proportions of hydrogen and natural gas in the blends changed, signifying disparate flow behaviours and consequent varying flow challenges. The velocity profiles showed that hydrogen can be transported in natural gas pipelines via blending with natural gas by up to 40% of hydrogen in the blend without exceeding the erosional velocity limits of the pipeline. However, when the proportion of hydrogen reached 60%, the erosional velocity limit was reached at 290 km, so that beyond this distance, the pipeline would be subject to internal erosion. The use of compressor stations was shown to be effective in remedying this challenge. This study provides more insights into the volumetric and safety considerations of adopting existing natural gas pipelines for the transportation of hydrogen and blends of hydrogen and natural gas. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Modulational Instability of Ion-Acoustic Waves and Associated Envelope Solitons in a Multi-Component Plasma

Subrata Banik

Nadiya Mehzabeen Heera

Tasfia Yeashna

Md. Rakib Hassan

Rubaiya Khondoker Shikha

Nure Alam Chowdhury

Abdul Mannan

and

A A Mamun

Gases 2021, 1(3), 148-155; https://doi.org/10.3390/gases1030012 - 27 Aug 2021

Cited by 2

Abstract

A generalized plasma model with inertial warm ions, inertialess iso-thermal electrons, super-thermal electrons and positrons is considered to theoretically investigate the modulational instability (MI) of ion-acoustic waves (IAWs). A standard nonlinear Schrödinger equation is derived by applying the reductive perturbation method. It is observed that the stable domain of the IAWs decreases with ion temperature but increases with electron temperature. It is also found that the stable domain increases by increasing (decreasing) the electron (ion) number density. The present results will be useful in understanding the conditions for MI of IAWs which are relevant to both space and laboratory plasmas. Full article

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